Abd al-Rahman III (Al-Nasir li-Din Allah)

Inheriting a splintered emirate at age twenty-one, Abd al-Rahman pacified rebellious provinces, expanded the Great Mosque of Córdoba, and built the shimmering palatial city of Madinat al-Zahra at the foot of the Sierra Morena. In 929 CE, he declared the independent Caliphate of Córdoba.

Under his enlightened patronage, Córdoba became a metropolis of 500,000 residents with street lighting, paved roads, seventy libraries, and interfaith coexistence (Convivencia) where Muslim, Jewish (under Hasdai ibn Shaprut), and Christian scholars collaborated.